History : An Intro
History is study of past which includes many things from origin of living things to development of mordern humans , society , culture etc. simply we can say - A written or unwritten records of important events and their cause is know as History.
On the basis of time periods from which written record is found , history is divided into three periods. these periods are -
Port Cities – Lothal, Sutkangedor, Balakot, Kuntasi, Allahdino.
- Prehistoric Period - a period in which humans did not present any written description.
- Protohistoric Period – such a period whose written material is available but it could not be read till now.
- History - such a period whose written description is available and which can be read.
After the end of the stone age, humans had learned to use metals. First of all humans used copper, after that bronze and then iron. Even after the knowledge of metals, humans did not stop using stone tools. The pre-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures in Baluchistan and Sindh region used Pandu (light pink) and red colored pottery.
In 1863, Roberts Bruce Foote was the first person to discover Palaeolithic tools from a place called Pallavaram in India.
Harappa And Indus Valley Civilization : Bronze Age Civilization – (2400 AD – 1700 AD)
Indus civilization was first discovered by Raibahadur Dayaram Sahni in 1921 under the leadership of John Marshall. It was an urban civilization. Harappa and Mohenjodaro, the two big cities of this civilization, are called the twin capitals of the vast empire. According to some scholars, Kalibangan was the third capital of the Harappan civilization. The city was divided into two parts – the citadel and the lower city. The citadel was used for large buildings such as auditorium, granary, administrative buildings etc. while the general public lived in the lower town. Dholavira was the only city that was divisible into three parts – the citadel, the middle city, and the lower city.
- This civilization is known for its urban layout and city planning and it was mainly a trade-business oriented civilization.
- The only source to know about the Harappan civilization is the archaeological excavations and the seals, utensils, idols, jewelry, weapons, tools, etc. obtained from it. He did not have the knowledge of iron and he was not even familiar with the sword.
- It was a matrilineal civilization. Their script was pictorial and symbolic, which was written from right to left, which has not been read yet. 400 letters have been found in his script.
- The people of Mesopotamia used the word Meluha for the Indus civilization.
- Their main crops were wheat and barley and they also used honey.
- The unit of weight was in the ratio of 16. The people of this civilization were not familiar with iron.
- These people used to worship Mother Goddess the most, along with this they also worshiped Linga Puja, Shiva Puja and the Goddess of Fertility. Swastik symbol is the gift of this civilization.
- These people used red earthenware decorated with black paint.
- The humped bull had an important place in this civilization. They used cotton and woolen clothes. Cotton was first cultivated by the people of the Harappan civilization.
- Both the practices of burning and burying the dead were prevalent. Burial in Harappa while cremation was done in Mohenjodaro. Apart from this, evidence of partial cremation is also found at some places.
- A stone statue of Yogi and a bronze statue of a dancer have been found in Mohenjodaro. The idol of Mother Goddess has been received from Harappa. Two cow figurines have been found from Lothal.
- Evidence of filling of red vermilion has been found in some female idols of clay found from Nausharo and Mehrgarh.
- Remains of horse bones have been found from Surkotda, Kalibangan and Lothal.
- There is a shape of animal or human on their seals and some letters are also engraved along with it. In animals mainly humpbacked bull, tiger, elephant, goat, rhinoceros, unicorn etc. were marked. Seals with a hole were probably used as amulets.
Port Cities – Lothal, Sutkangedor, Balakot, Kuntasi, Allahdino.
Capital city – Harappa, Mohenjodaro.
Major Cities of Indus Civilization : Location and Characteristics
1. Harappa
Harappa is located in Shahiwal district of Punjab province of Pakistan. Firstly in 1853 General Cunningham surveyed this place but he could not understand the importance of this place. Later in 1921, Raibahadur Dayaram Sahni, under the leadership of Jan Marshall, excavated and brought this elaborate civilization to light. Forts, defense ramparts, platforms, houses, granaries are important in the remains of Harappa. The fort is located on the west side of the city, which is meant to protect it. Each house in Harappa had rooms and courtyards, but evidence of wells has not been found in the houses like Mohenjodaro.
2. Mohenjodaro
Mohenjodaro which means "mound of the dead", was first discovered in 1922 by Rakhaldas Banerjee. This is also a fort located in the west part of the city. Its main feature was the roads here. These roads used to divide the city into several quadrilateral sections cutting each other at right angles in the straight direction. For cleanliness on the side of the roads, dustbins and paved drains were made on both sides of the road, which were covered with stone slabs. The ratio of bricks was 4:2:1. There were three types of buildings in the Indus civilization – residence, huge building, public bath. On this, the doors and windows of the buildings used to open towards the streets and not towards the main road. The following are the main remains obtained from here, in which mainly there are bathrooms, granaries, assembly halls etc. It is also called the oasis or garden of Sindh.
- Grand Bathroom : This is the most important site of Mohenjodaro, whose length is 180' (54.86 meters) and width is 108' (33 meters). There is a reservoir located in the middle of it which is 11 meters long, 7 meters wide and 2.4 meters deep. The wall of the floor is made of solid bricks and gypsum has been used for joining. There were verandahs on three sides and many rooms behind them, in one of them there was a well from which water was filled in this reservoir. Tubes were made to drain the water. Perhaps the use of the bathhouse was for the general public and it was used for religious purposes.
- Granaries : A building has been found on a platform to the west of the bath, whose upper structure was made of bamboo, which has now been destroyed. It has a total of 27 cells, in which space has also been made for ventilation. Perhaps it was a state warehouse in which the grain taken from the public as tax was kept.
- Auditorium : This is a pillared building situated to the south of the fort, in which remains of 20 square pillars of bricks have been found. They have four pieces and each has 5-5 pillars. It was used for public meetings.
3. Chanhudaro
It was an industrial center from where a bead making factory has been found. There is no evidence of fortification from here.
4. Made
Here the fort and the lower town are surrounded by the same wall instead of being separate. A stone weight has been found from it. Perhaps it was a city of rich people. It is the only city with arterial streets.
5. Ropar
Pet dog is buried with man in a cemetery of
6. Rakhigarhi
This is the largest site of the Harappan civilization. Two silver crowns have been found from this site located in Haryana.
7. Kalibangan
It is also called the third capital of the Indus Civilization. A plowed field has been found from this and raw bricks were used in the construction of this building. Baked bricks were used only for making drains, wells etc. The people here knew how to grow two crops simultaneously. A tandoor has been found from here which is exactly like the tandoor used at present. The remains of public drains are not found from here and the water of the houses used to fall into the sink. Only here the wood was hollowed out and used as drains.
8. Lothal
It was the oldest known dockyard in the world from where trade was probably carried out till the Persian Gulf. It is also called "ship's dock". Remains of scale and plumb have been found from here. It is also called Small Harappa or Small Mohenjodaro. Double funeral pyre, fire altar, terracotta statue of horse etc. have been received from here.
9. Surkotada
From here the evidence of the new method of Shavadhan Kalash Shavadhan has been received. Horse bones have also been found from here.
10. Dholavira
It is the second largest city of the Indus Civilization. It is divided into three parts – Durg, Middle town, Lower town. White polished stone blocks have been obtained from here, which shows that the Indus people knew the art of polishing. A big plaque has been found from here, on which 10 capital letters are stone engraved.
Few Important Points
- Pashupati Seal : A seal from Mohenjodaro depicts a seated man wearing a three-horned crown. It has elephant and tiger on the right while rhinoceros and buffalo are engraved on the left. Two deer are also engraved below the seat. It is referred to as Pashupati.
- Bronze Dancer Statue : This is the world's oldest bronze statue obtained from Mohenjodaro. It appears in Tribhanga posture of Odissi with hands on her waist. He is naked wearing bangles in his left hand and a garland around his neck. It is made by vanishing wax method.
- Yogi's Stone Statue : This idol of a priest from Mohenjodaro is wearing a shamrock. Its eyes are half-open which shows its meditativeness. It is wearing a plaque on the head.
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